The Log Cabin Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Log Cabin Theory - Essay Example The alleged compassion of General Harrison, and the rumored abhorrence of Van Buren for the helpless man, for the modest resident, is the genuine mystery of the incredible and colossal political insurgency of 1840. (Robbins, p. 42) General Harrison, a decided, independent pioneer who rose from humble provincial beginnings, furnished himself through instruction, difficult work or both, with the essential apparatuses for political administration. (Chalmers, p. 149) The attributes above are the sorts that are seen to be remarkably fit to the afflictions of political life in the United States. Somebody who has experienced indistinguishable battles from the Whigs president is seen to have the ability to fight affliction and defeat deterrents undermining the accomplishment of their objectives. The encounters of lawmakers with unassuming beginnings fill in as their arms in engaging all the difficulties of the situation in the administration he will before long experience. (Chalmers, p. 149) After 1840, party associations, strategies, and slants were generally and transparently acknowledged as grounds of political direct. It had by then become troublesome basically to consider political life and dynamic political authority, even reflectively, without reference to the thought process of propelling gathering interests. (Beshady, p. 252) The log lodge battle had started the precedent in the relationship of lawmakers with ideological groups that bolsters them through the procedure of political race from political assemblies and crusades fundamental for the accomplishment of the applicant. Subsequently, the ascent of the log-lodge battle got a huge pattern the presidential political decision in the United States through presidential crusades to such an extent that a presidential competitor with insufficient crusades may lost the track. The Log-Cabin History The time of the extraordinary ride - this is the manner by which one researcher watches the 1840 presidential political decision. The Whigs, albeit joined against the Jacksonians who were the resistance, thought that it was hard to put aside its declared pioneer Henry Clay. He was excessively associated with Whig financial matters in this manner he was seen as a decent Presidential competitor. Harry of the West was at last shunted aside through a convoluted strategy of selection and the Harrisburg show thought of General William Henry Harrison as Presidential up-and-comer. He was the most 'unobjectionable' applicant with the end goal that he doesn't have anything a lot to be discussed. He was significantly progressively unobjectionable because of his application without stage. There were even signs that the Whig applicant doesn't know regarding how the battle will be directed. It was just when an obscure newspaperman recruited to be the supervisor of their battle sheets did the gathe ring know their obligation and their motivation - that is to expel the Democratic Party pioneer Henry Clay from power. (Ward, p. 269) Harrison's possibility of not succeeding the presidential office was awfully self-evident. Nonetheless, the gathering didn't have the foggiest idea what picture to depict in their battle until a critique has been conveyed, for which its beginning is obscure as of recently. Give him a barrel of hard juice and settle a benefits of 2,000 every year upon him, and our assertion for it, he will sit the rest of his days content in a log lodge. (Ward, 269) Rather than taking the issue in a negative point of view, the gathering had turned its theme as the focal of the battle. The log lodge, with its proposal of the confinement, the

The Major Environmental Issues In Bhutan Environmental Sciences Essay

The Major Environmental Issues In Bhutan Environmental Sciences Essay Bhutan is growing quickly and has encountered gigantic change with these positive changes, Bhutan face various difficulties among which ecological issues are one of the major. Ecological issue incorporates squander the executives issue, contamination, populace development and deforestation. As a natural understudy, it is critical to know ecological issues and the best approach to handle these issues. In this task, I have referenced the major natural issues and various manners by which these issues can be handled. I might want to demand our instructor to mercifully address me and as are understudy myself, I concede there will be various slip-ups. With extraordinary energy I did task and have taken in a great deal from this task. Some of major ecological issues in Bhutan Squander Management: Although most of Bhutanese individuals are monitoring waste management⠿â ½s as they utilize the waste appropriately by dumping in the pit or in legitimate spots. The fundamental issue of waste administration emerges or took puts in remote spots and particularly in the process of giving birth camps, where waste is tossed imprudently. In this manner there is a need to complete waste administration crusades all the time for various objective gatherings. So as to enable ecological preservation to target explicit issue regions, remote spots and information has been additionally dissected into gewogs savvy. The remote gewogs were having most noteworthy waste administration issues as they are uneducated, ignorant and they never think for their future practical. Squander the board issue was accounted for as most noteworthy by understudies, trailed by ranchers, instructors and voyagers as when explorers are going for visit they toss squander out of the vehicle or tran sports. In this way squander the board outdoors should be composed all the time focusing on transport proprietors and explorers too. On the waste removal practice 88 percent arranged there squander in legitimate spots followed by one individual every who arrange squander in the waterway, woodland and furthermore covered the waste and 9 percent didn't react. Despite the fact that greater part of the objective gatherings appears to dump their loss in the pit however it is additionally a worry that some don't dump their waste inappropriately. in this manner there is have to prepare individuals and teach on legitimate waste administration techniques dependent on the three standards of lessen, reuse and reuse is conceivable and furthermore to isolate squander into degradable and non - biodegradable and train individuals make compost out of degradable or natural waste. Contamination will be tainting of nature by a concoction other specialist, for example, commotion or warmth that is destructive to human wellbeing and endurance. Contaminating synthetic concoctions can influence the earth straightforwardly, for example, from volcanic ejections or through human exercises, for example, consuming coals and gases. Dumping of synthetic into waterway and other sea will likewise prompt contaminating nature contrarily. Contamination can be sorted as water, soil, clamor, warm and atomic contamination. This is all because of momentary monetary increase made by human. So it tends to be explained by charging outside cost high on those products which have high contamination on condition. As indicated by the enumeration of 2003 the number of inhabitants in Bhutan is 6,34,982 and its development rate is 2 percent for each year.(CAPSED,BHSEC XII content) When the populace is developing at a quick rate it will prompt effect on condition as they need more land for development and in any event, for development of houses for endurance. When there is more populace it prompts the utilization of more assets, in any event, for their own advantages and therefore there will be no legitimate feasible creating for future and even destitute individuals they can begin doing angling, assaulting creatures and species for their endurance and it will prompt improvement of a nations economy as though there is more individuals there will be more work power and nation will accomplish all the more exchanging it is exceptionally hurtful to the earth as there is odds of squandering assets and no appropriate economical in the nation. Yet, when a nation is going high on monetary development it w ill help in utilizing the assets and they will utilize high talented work power to use appropriately and think for the future reason. Valuable plant and trees are getting wiped out because of freeing from the timberland. The prerequisite of land for huge open cast undertakings or plans is very huge. A significant number of the backwoods regions, numerous multiple times, are changed over to fields. There for enormous backwoods zones are deforested to clear a path for huge open cast manufacturing plants or ventures. Hence we need to compose a few strategies to save our condition, for example, planting trees in inclined regions, practice of aforestation techniques. Customer is the person who have option to stop overall deforestation. Being a piece of shopper we have option to charge high on those organizations who have high natural impact. By purchasing reused or confirmed wood items, just supporting brands with zero deforestation approaches, and getting others to do likewise by making an impression on organizations to grasp zero deforestation strategies. Such huge numbers of trees are chopped down and consumed in rustic territories. The main motivation to do so is to rehearse transitory farming, for example, Tseri culture or moving development. Those terrains are utilized till its profitability decays. As the gainfully, individuals tends to choose new plot of land and produce a similar strategy. Such agrarian techniques have brought about natural issue. Condition preservation arrangement and methodology of Bhutan Natural protection is certifiably not another idea to Bhutanese. It has consistently been at the focal point of national improvement thinking and arrangement making. Longer than a year government set up a solid preservation strategies and law has developed to guarantee security, the board and maintainable utilization of biodiversity assets. Bhutan preservation approaches and laws are adding to the all-encompassing national advancement target of GNH. This depends on maintainable advancement as one of its four columns. As per the constitution of the realm of Bhutan, which cherishes ecological protection as an established mandate.(Consituation,2008) Sustainable characteristic Resources segment strategy. The RNR segment strategy give significance on accomplishing more noteworthy national food security, saving and overseeing regular assets, upgrading provincial pay, and creating ranch based business openings. Targets: To energize monetary improvement that has regard for long haul maintainable advancement on the countrys assets, relative focal points, and network based self improvement foundations. To seek after parity and fair advancement of the nation inexhaustible normal assets, circulations of advantages among their general public and districts. To be touchy and receptive to the rich culture legacy of the nation and its conservation. Network timberland the board It was presented in the nation during the 1980s. Its principle objective was to improve neighborhood timberland conditions through network the executives Enhancing financial advantages to the nearby networks as far as expanded access to backwoods items, for example, timber, fuel wood, grain and non-wood woodland items. It is liable for all the communities⠿â ½ part, for example, seat individual. Resub which implies answerable for dealing with woods and taking care of the individual whether they are doing hurt on woodland or not. The people group part as well as answerable though the resident of Bhutan to take couldn't care less of our rich condition. Until 2001, there was just a single network backwoods unit, which was built up with the network of Dozam town in Dramatis gewog, Mongar in 1997. Since 2001, an aggregate of 117 network woods units on the whole covering 15,489 ha of backwoods land have been built up the nation over and finally milestone year for the network timberland the board program were in 2008. (UNDP, MOA, DOF, 2009). Natural Protection Act, 2007: Bhutan has a long convention of living in amicability with nature, which is solidly by the goals of the parliament to keep up at least 60% of countrys land under woodland spread in unendingness.( Environmental Protection Act, 2007.)Objectives: This demonstration composes for the most part to accommodate the foundation of a powerful framework to preserve and ensure condition through the National Environment Commission or its replacement, assignment of equipped specialists and constitution of other consultant serious, to freely direct and advance practical improvement in a fair way and furthermore the individuals and government in progression will consider and receive it formative strategies, plans and projects in concordance with the earth standards. (Natural act, 2008) MINES AND MINERALS MANGEMENT ACT, 1995: The mineral administration and mines Act was presented in 1995. Its primary goals are safeguarding, insurance, sitting of ecological gauges and protection of characteristic assets consistent with the arrangement of the Act and other natural enactment as a basic element of mining practice. It is liable for both business firm and government part to rebuilding of zones that are mined is completed in an appropriate way with the target of making supportable and satisfactory condition as affirmed by the national condition commission. In exercise of the forces gave by article 50 of the mines and minerals the board Act of 1995, the service of exchange, industry mines and minerals the executives guidelines 2002. They tracked mining activity including ecological assurance quality norms embraced by the national condition commission. (MINES AND MINERALS MANGEMENT ACT, 1995) Natural CONESRVATION POLICY IN BHUTAN: Bhutans advancement reasoning is most well articulates in the announcement of His Majesty the King Jigme Singye Wangchuk said that, Gross National Happiness is a higher priority than Gross Domestic Product.(Majhi, 2005 p22

Managing of the Voice project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Overseeing of the Voice venture - Essay Example These documents are significant and in this way they ought to be put away utilizing distributed computing, so that in any event, when there is framework disappointment the records will at present be protected (KIMPERLEY, 2010, pp 88) . For the effective execution of the VOICE distributed computing, the capacities that the division plays ought to be separated into littler work units and each work unit ought to be going by somebody who will assume the liability for that gathering. These work units ought to have the full help of the administration with the goal that they work proficiently. For each company’s achievement the workers must be persuaded. This is on the grounds that spurred representatives will in general work to their best of ability. In this way the two organizations should concoct a method of spurring the staff individuals from the organizations if the fruitful usage of VOICE distributed computing is to be accomplished. Furthermore, this will be useful in that these are two distinct gatherings who have been working distinctively and in this way they may have various sentiments undoubtedly. The structure of the organization should be checked by and by the supervisory crew. A similar structure can't be kept up as there is another organization which has been welcomed ready. The staff individuals from the People controlled framework will feel like they are not part of the organization if similar structures are kept set up.

Why is the Gender Wage Gap in America not Closing - 550 Words

Why is the Gender Wage Gap in America not Closing (Essay Sample) Content: NameProfessorCourseDateMaxine Clark and Build-A-BearMaxine Clark founded Workshop Build-A-Bear in 1997. She was a president of Payless Shoe Source Inc. until 1992. As aamp veteran in the retail industry, she already developed an ability to spot emerging selling trends that will profit and suits the desire of the American consumers. Clark was at the age of 47 when she left the company because she was not satisfied. It started when she and her 10-year-old friend Katie Burkhardt shopped a famous bean bag toy Beanie Babies. Sadly, all of the bean bag toys from different stores are sold out and the kid became very disappointed. Clark said that those toys can be easily made so she ran back to her house and get some materials and everything came out to be Workshop Build-A-Bear which became one of the most popular toy stores up until now. Her retailing experience and her lost childhood interests put the concept of creating toys for children into reality.With more than 200 sto res across the United States that time, Build-A-Bear Workshops became one of the well-known stuffed animal store where you can dress and put accessories on them. For Clark and for the company, every new owner should put a heart on every stuffed animal they choose to like how they put a heart in creating the organization. The company went public in 2000 and in 2001 they experienced a 35 percentage growth rate every year. In 2005, Workshops Build-A-Bear receive its franchise also to Denmark, Australia, France, Japan, Korea and the United Kingdom and reached a $27.3 million net income and $358.9 million net retail sales while Clark was inaugurated as a Hall of Fame in the Junior Achievement National Award the same year. It was not that long when she faced one of the greatest challenges being a female business owner. She said that people are not convinced that dealing with stuffed animal cannot hold her position and success for long. But instead of giving up, she proved them wrong. In 2 008, Clark became one of 25 people, who are the most influential in Retailing followed by stepping the company up to be named in so-called Fortune Best Companies to Work For. As a challenged businesswoman, the companys founder claimed that she learned many lessons along the road. She wrote then a book under the name The Bear Necessities of Business, claiming that mistakes make you a better pers...

Rethinking Capitalism in Young Economist Students´ Meet (...

I also had this question in mind when I first heard about Young Economist Students’ Meet, in my first year of undergraduate course in the Department of Economics, Jadavpur University. Being associated with YESM for the past two editions and based upon whatever minute economic and logical reasoning and knowledge as well as practical experiences in many situations of life, I have gathered over the years a very certain fact that I have realized, - It is not always by one’s academic superiorities or leadership skills or in the strength of one’s â€Å"contacts†, can one COMPLETELY, make a substantial difference in his/her own life, let alone be of that in a society’s, in a country’s, or for those who think big, - in the world’s welfare. I have†¦show more content†¦Although the economic power maybe in the hold of the top 1% but the voting share poses a considerable threat! 99% of voting rights vest with the â€Å"non-powerful† and only 1% with the â€Å"powerful†. But still for long the 99% have put up with this since they kept on following what has been followed, primarily also because they thought that they would also someday have a chance to do well if they kept on trying harder and harder. But would the chance be given to them? Or does it need to be created? So what is the solution? Many say Socialism, many say Democracy! But which one is optimum? Or what is the right blend and mix of these forms of societies which would make each of our future secure? How far does the â€Å"regulation† of government need to extend? Can we find a restructured and transparent model of the capitalist structure with substantial traces of democracy? YESM 2012 aims to answer that question, discussing the various pros and cons of the capitalist system and urges the students to RETHINK! Rollo May in his book, â€Å"Man’s Search for Himself† writes, - â€Å"The opposite of courage in our society is not cowardice, - its conformity.† 95% people act without actually knowing where they are going, they act like everyone else does! But the basic and the very obvious problem to this

Pardoners in the Middle Ages Essay - 1041 Words

Though told by a self-confessed liar and hypocrite, the tale has a powerful moral and imaginative effect. How far do you agree with this view of the text? Chaucer’s pardoner is an enigmatic, paradoxical figure, both intriguing yet repulsive. From the very beginning of his Prologue the Pardoner makes no attempts to hide his â€Å"ypocrise,† instead taking a perverse pleasure in the extent of his corruption. As seen in the portrait of the Monk in The General Prologue, Chaucer allows the Pardoner to condemn himself. He purposely reveals his methods of extracting money from† the povereste widwe in a village† his contempt for his usual audience of â€Å"lewed peple† and complete disregard for the doctrines of the Church. The Pardoner’s†¦show more content†¦Of course, we have to bear in mind that while the pilgrims hear the Pardoner’s rhetorical skills we hear Chaucer’s skill as a poet. In his digression the Pardoner melodramatically denounces a number of sins, making extensive use of rhetorical devices such as hyperbole, anaphora and apostrophe: â€Å" O glotonye, ful of cursednesse! O cause first of oure confusioun! O original of oure dampnacioun.† He seems to use these to involve and unnerve his audience and effectively keep all eyes on him. He alludes to both the Bible and classical mythology, citing Biblical prophets, historical figures and philosophers. In contrast the tale itself is relatively plainly told and we can safely assume that the Pardoner is well practiced in the art of telling this specific tale and even inserts some of his sermon into it. His sermon is based on several medieval conventions, such as that of the mysterious old man, whom Dr. McIntyre identifies as a â€Å"representation of the immanence and inescapability of death,† something which would have struck a chord with a medieval audience suffering from the onslaught of the Black Death. The tale is an example of a very well defined genre with its own conventions and devices; nevertheless the pardoner makes it his own through his own use of rhetorical flourishes and poetic detail. HeShow MoreRelatedThe Pardoners Prologue And Tale By Chaucer Essay1425 Words   |  6 Pagespeople for financial gain, which was relevant in society during the Middle Ages. In Chaucer’s story, the Pardoner uses his influence and tells a tale of three men to convince the people to pay for him to pardon their sins. Chaucer’s tale and story is often used to emphasize the moral values in our society. There are many points in the tale that are based on the theme of greed being the cause of all evil in humanity, and the Middle Ages was a period of great societal change in Europe. â€Å"The Pardoner’sRead MoreChaucer s The Canterbury Tales1064 Words   |  5 PagesGeoffrey Chaucer, The Author of the Canterbury Tales, is known as the Father of English Literature and is one of the greatest English Poets of the Middle Ages. Chaucer was a soldier, a diplomat, a civil servant, and a courtier, enabling him to experience different aspects of each social ranking, which he demonstrated through his poetry. The Canterbury Tales, his most famous work, is a collection of short stories within a frame story, making for an interesting and memorable narrative about 29 pilgrimsRead More Canterbury Tales Essay - Sexuality in The Wife of Bath and the Pardoner1711 Words   |  7 Pagesand the Pardoner In Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales, an eclectic mix of people gathers together at Tabard Inn to begin a pilgrimage to Canterbury. In the General Prologue, the readers are introduced to each of these characters. Among the pilgrims are the provocative Wife of Bath and the meek Pardoner. These two characters both demonstrate sexuality, in very different ways. Chaucer uses the Wife and the Pardoner to examine sexuality in the medieval period. The Middle Ages were a timeRead MoreEssay on Geoffrey Chaucer1158 Words   |  5 Pagespromotes her view that women wish to have authority over men. The Pardoner: An effeminate and shamelessly immoral man, the Pardoner is intensely self-loathing yet devoted to his task of defrauding people of their money by making them believe that they have sinned and need to buy pardons. His tale is an allegory about three rioters who find death through their avarice. The Pardoner uses this tale as an attempt to sell false relics to the travelers. The Miller:Read MoreCanterbury Tales Character Analysis1334 Words   |  6 Pagesmanipulative, with a few clergy who are honest and genuine in their exertion. Therefore, the ecclesiastical persona has the dispositions of either being con-men and charlatans or being devout and God-fearing. The other characters portray the themes of the middle ages of greed, prestigious, fraud, barbarity, vengeance and others. This novel consists of stories that illustrate rank and nobility and how sin is involved in these aspects of the social order. Each tale portrays their own interpretation of gender equalityRead MoreThe Pardoners Tale By Chaucer Theme Analysis1533 Words   |  7 Pagesmany themes can be found in these tales. Among the various pilgrims featured in the Canterbury Tales, the Pardoner is one of the most fully described characters. Chaucer goes into great detail describing the Pardoner. The Pardoner is a fraudulent huckster who shows who does not care about passing off f alse items as the relics of saints. He also sells indulgences in exchange for money. The Pardoner shifts from moments of direct honesty to shameless deceit, openly admitting the tricks of his trade toRead MoreGeoffrey Chaucer s The Canterbury Tales867 Words   |  4 Pagesthese characters have a convincing or questionable personality. Chaucer first sets the mood by providing an overall idea of each character before they tell their stories. The physical and personal descriptions of the Miller, the Wife of Bath and the Pardoner are some characters criticized by the other pilgrims. One physical and personal profile that is criticized is that of the Miller. He is mostly described in a physical manner,â€Å"  The  Miller  was a strong man I own;/ A stout fellow, big in brawn andRead More The Moral Implications of The Pardoner?s Tale and The Nun?s Priest?s T810 Words   |  4 Pages During the Middle Ages, England was a nation in social chaos. Deception of every kind was rampart throughout the lands. Many people felt that there was a great need for moral improvement in society. In Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales he clearly brings to light his thoughts and concerns of â€Å"ethical cleansing.† No tale more fully expresses this idea than that of â€Å"The Pardoner’s Tale† and â€Å"The Nun’s Priest’s Tale.† â€Å"The Pardoner’s Tale† suggests a profile of the Pardoner as a moral man, aRead More Canterbury Tales Essay646 Words   |  3 PagesMueller 2 Chaucer explains that he breaks the written laws and precedents set by people recognized as Saints and highly acclaimed people. The Monk is a lazy, disgusting man who lived a dishonest and imprudent life. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The Pardoner and Summoner appear together in amp;#8220;The Prologue.; They further illustrate an example of Chauceramp;#8217;s awareness of a defiled Church. Chaucer provides humor to his description of the Summoner in that amp;#8220;heamp;#8217;d allowRead MoreCriticism of the Church in the Canterbury Tales1576 Words   |  7 PagesThe Canterbury Tales, a collection of tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, was written in Middle English at the end of the 14th century (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2011). It is considered to be the best work of literature in English in the Middle Ages (Johnston, 1998). Chaucer uses literary devices as no one had ever done. In addition, he chose to use English instead of Latin. This masterpiece is structured in a similar way as Bocaccios Decameron. The tales are organized within a frame narrative (Encyclopaedia

Autism Essay Introduction Example For Students

Autism Essay Introduction Autism Research PaperAutism is a neurological disorder that was identified by Dr. Leo Kanner 50 years ago. Autism can affect someone very mildly or severally and it can effect language, communication, and/or gross motor skills. It is the most devastating disorder a child could have and it also is devastating for the family. There is no medicine and no cure for autism but there are glutton free diets that help. People with autism can look normal but they lack communication skills and are withdrawn within there own world. Many people with autism usually have rituals or they do the same thing constantly which makes them need constant supervision from their parents or state agencies. Children with autism usually dont ever use creative or imaginative play. They also need to be taught everything that they know. There is an estimated 400,000 autistic people in the U.S. from any ethnic or racial background. The social, emotional, and financial costs of autism to the family and to state or federal agencies is very high. Autism affects its victims in a wide variety of ways. Some do well in special supportive environments, other are completely independent and function fairly well, and still others may never learn to talk or be able to work or live independently. It is common for an autistic person to avoid being touched because of a strong sense of touch. A light touch to most people may hurt an autistic person. Yet some autistic people are insensitive to pain and wont notice injuries. Hearing can -2-also be strong so that a noise that would not bother your ears, may hurt an autistic persons ears. Autistic peoples vision can also be affected. They have trouble recognizing people. They can also have their eyes hurt by a bright light. I have worked 4 years in the autistic group in scamp which is a camp for special kids and I have noticed autistic people will often do strange things, like flapping their hands in front of their eyes, humming, spinning in circles, rocking back and forth, or repeating things. They do these things just for fun, or because they are excited or distressed. Talking to oneself or giggling for no reason is often the result of daydreaming or remembering. Autism isnt just one disease but a category of diferent syndromes. Three of the most definable syndromes are Retts, Aspergers, and Landua-Kleffner. Retts syndrome is only found in females and most are retarded. This syndrome develops between the ages of six months to eighteen months. Retts begins with a normal state of development, then the victim stop progressing in skills such as speech, hand movements, and social skills, along with other signs of central nervous system dysfunction. Females with Retts are most prone to having seizures. Aspergers syndrome is found in both males and females. After the first few years of life, victims will lose everything they have learned, but will eventually progress again. People with Aspergers appear to have more verbal and recognition skills. They -3-also sometimes show strong interest in subway, bus, and train schedules and maps. Landua-Kleffner syndrome is also found in males and females. Victims with this disorder appear normal until between the ages of three to seven. They lose the ability to talk and show great social withdrawal. People with autism usually never marry but people with a mild case could possibly marry and have children. Many autistic people receive help from family and relatives. In an autistic persons life, all he/she needs is love and understanding. Although they may seem dumb, many are very bright. Many have a higher IQ then what is usual. Autism can be a devastating disorder but to the affected individual, it is his/her normal world. .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf , .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf .postImageUrl , .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf , .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf:hover , .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf:visited , .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf:active { border:0!important; } .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf:active , .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u7d9aabe094a8813eb19a4ea9930e2cbf:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Integration by Parts EssayWords/ Pages : 650 / 24

The effect of temperature on the hydrolysis of starch using amylase extracted from barley Essay Example

The effect of temperature on the hydrolysis of starch using amylase extracted from barley Paper Enzymes are a class of proteins that catalyse chemical reactions, which increases the rate of a metabolic reaction. Most enzymes are specific, working on a particular or class of reactions. In this case I am using an enzyme known as amylase (a group of enzymes which convert starch to sugar), which is an important metabolic enzyme. Amylase is found in various parts of the body including the saliva of the parotid gland and the pancreas, e. g. ptyalin, which aids in the digestion of carbohydrates by speeding up specific digestive processes taking place from the mouth to the small intestines. However, in this experiment we are using amylase which has been extracted from barley. The function of amylase is to catalyze (to modify the rate of a chemical reaction by catalysis) the hydrolysis (decomposition of a chemical compound by reaction with water) of starch into glucose. Starch is a mixture of two compounds; amylose and amylopectin, both of these molecules are polymers which contain a large, variable number of a-glucose molecules linked to each other by condensation. Amylase acts on starch, which is a polysaccharide (a class of carbohydrates; starch, consisting of a number of twenty-five monosaccharides) and breaks it down into maltose, a disaccharide. A disaccharide is defined as any class of carbohydrates; maltose, that yield two monosaccharides upon hydrolysis. The disaccharide sugars; maltose, lactose, and sucrose, have the empirical formula C12H22O11. When treated with enzymes, the disaccharides combine with one molecule of water and split into two molecules of monosaccharide hexose sugars, e. . maltose splits into two molecules of glucose when treated. In order for amylase to continue working at its best, the body needs to keep within several degrees of 37 C (an optimum temperature for most enzymes), as enzymes must work in mild conditions of a cell in the body. Chemicals which are changed by enzyme-catalysed reactions are known as the substrates of that enzyme, which fit into the active site (where the reaction takes place) of the enzyme, in a lock-and-key mechanism. We will write a custom essay sample on The effect of temperature on the hydrolysis of starch using amylase extracted from barley specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The effect of temperature on the hydrolysis of starch using amylase extracted from barley specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The effect of temperature on the hydrolysis of starch using amylase extracted from barley specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The products of the reaction then leave the active site, which frees it up for more similar reactions to take place. If our body heat exceeds further past 37 C our cells become impaired or permanently damaged, this damage is irreversible to the molecular structure of the enzymes due to the velocity with which the atoms move about. This is because the structure of the an enzyme vibrates so much that some of the bonds holding the tertiary structure together break (especially hydrogen bonds as they are weak). So now the enzyme starts to lose its globular shape, because of this the substrate will no longer be able to fit into its active site. In other words when the enzymes become denatured, there is a major change from the native state to another state without the changing of the primary structure, this usually leaves the enzyme without its catalytic functions. At a temperature of approximately 100 C amylase becomes denatured. Whereas, if our body heat was to descend below 37 C the metabolism decreases without permanent damage until ice crystals form in the cells. Meaning the enzymes are inactivated, not denatured (even at extreme low temperatures, such as 0 C) and once the temperatures increase, they will regain their function. From the first graph which shows the percentage transmission from the colorimeter (a device which provides an indication of how deep a colour is, and could measure the index of concentration of the samples) at minute intervals at different temperatures; 15 C, 25 C and 35 C, there is a trend and pattern. This trend and pattern is that the lower the percentage of transmission from the colorimeter, the less light getting through, this means that there is a high concentration of starch (mg). Although, as time increases more and more of the substrate (starch) is being broken down into maltose so there is an increase of transmission from the colorimeter, meaning more light is passed through the solution. For example, at 35 C and at 0 minutes there is 1% transmission from the colorimeter, meaning that only 1% of light can pass through the solution because there is 465mg of starch (shown by the Starch Calibration Curve). As time increases to 20 minutes there is a 40% transmission from the colorimeter meaning there is 70mg of starch concentration left in the solution because it has been broken down by amylase at a high activity rate. The biological knowledge to support this trend and pattern is the kinetic theory; when a substance is heated, its molecules is being supplied with kinetic energy, so they move around faster. In this experiment, as the temperature rises from 15 C to 25 C to 35 C, there is an increase in the number of collisions between the active site of the enzyme and starch molecules and with more energy. This causes them to react more efficiently as this results in more enzyme-substrate complexes and in turn the formation of more products. At low temperatures e. g. 15 C, the molecules will not collide very frequently and the starch will not be broken down as quickly. This shown on the graphs at 15 C and at 0 minutes there is 0% transmission from the colorimeter, meaning that 0% of light can pass through the solution because there is 500mg of starch (shown by the Starch Calibration Curve). As time increases to 22 minutes there is a 15% transmission from the colorimeter meaning there is 160mg of starch concentration left in the solution. This is because it has been broken down by amylase at a slow activity rate, so there is a higher concentration of starch left compared to the 25 C (120mg) and 35 C (70mg) results. From the second graph; A graph to show the milligrams of starch at minute intervals at different temperatures, it shows that with time, the starch concentration is decreasing for each temperature that is being tested. This graph shows an exponential decay curve of the amount of starch concentration broken down for every x minutes, therefore the substrate will not totally be broken down. This reaction is not a equilibrium reaction because as the starch concentration decreases the enzyme finds it increasingly difficult to find enough substrate to act on. From my results, I can conclude that between temperatures 15 C 35 C, the efficiency of the enzyme increases with temperature. Therefore, the graph shows that 35 C is the optimum temperature because at the end of the experiment (at 20 minutes), the solution has a high percentage of transmission (40%) meaning 70mg starch left. So the amylase is breaking down the starch most effectively at 35 C due to the more light passing through from the colorimeter. These figures show that at 35 C the hydrolysis of starch using amylase is a lot more active, because the body temperature is around 35 C and enzymes such as amylase, are designed to work at this optimal temperature. So at 35 C maltose is formed a lot faster than at 25 C and 15 C. Whereas, at 15 C and 25 C the graphs show that the activity of the amylase is working at a much slower rate, therefore unable to break down as much of the starch in approximately 20 minutes. This is shown by a less percentage from the colorimeter, which does gradually increase over more time when more milligrams of starch is broken down into maltose. Evaluation of practical work: The experiment worked well overall, proving that the optimum temperature of the amylase used in this experiment was around 35 C. The results are sufficiently accurate as each set of results align almost a perfect curve, and they were taken at timed intervals far enough apart so that the readings are clear from each other. In this practical procedure the results could have been influenced by main sources of errors such as: The apparatus could have been improved as the water baths used were not all at the exact temperatures required, and each water bath possibly contained different amounts of water. If better quality water baths had been used and more time was issued to ensure that each of the three water baths had exactly the same amount of water and was at the exact temperature required, more accurate and reliable results would have been achieved. This also could have been achieved by repeating the experiment for each temperature more than twice and then calculating averages of the two sets of results. Also the use of a colorimeter could have altered the results of the colorimeter readings when it was set at 100% with a test tube of diluted iodine by a member of the group. To improve this we need to have used a photospectrometer which is a device that can stop the fluctuation of these percentage transmissions resulting in precise and accurate results. * We should have performed the experiment at intervals smaller than 10 C, so that we used a wider range of temperatures e. g. 10 C 70 C. At this temperature range I would have been able to see whether at the lowest temperature if the enzyme; amylase, could function at all effectively and that amylase would possibly denature at 70 C and definitely at a temperature above 70 C. Proving that above 70 C the amylase is denatured therefore no longer catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch, which is broken down into maltose. Conducting the experiment at 10 C intervals between these temperatures would have obtained a sufficient number of distinct results. * I think that the pipettes used were another main error. More accurate results could have been obtained by cleaning the pipette between each reading, or using a new pipette each time, although this couldnt practically happen. There was always some solution left over in the pipette from the previous solution, whether this was iodine solution, distilled water or when we were extracting the reaction medium and placing it in the diluted iodine solutions. Another problem with the pipettes is that when the reaction medium was extracted and clearfully put into a diluted iodine solution, during this time the amylase was acting on the starch while this solution was in the pipette. This made the timings recorded slightly out, although this effect may have been lessened with the temperature at 35 C as the mixture was cooling down to room temperature in the pipette. Also we could have possibly swirled the enzyme extract and starch solution together in the water bath so that the substrate and enzyme could mix and the molecules collide. A solution to this whole experiment would have been to automate (convert to a automatic operation) the whole system. This would have allowed a sample of the mixture to be automatically taken every minute or possibly more frequently, and the concentration of the starch stored onto a computer. Carrying out the experiment like this would have solved any inaccuracies in timing, which may not have always been exact when using a stop clock and someone watching the time. This way it would have also removed any human errors e. g. the test tube not being wiped properly before being placed into the colorimeter or didnt shake the reaction medium and diluted iodine solution together enough/too much etc. So if the experiment had use of better apparatus and stricter conditions, my results would have been plotted onto a graph and a more clear and accurate curve would have resulted.

early 1800s essays

early 1800s essays There were many changes taking place in the US around the year 1800. The frontier land was constantly being pushed back by new settlements and would contribute to the history of slavery and African Americans. Louisana was purchased in 1803 and freedom-loving young settlers as well as successful cotton plantation masters moved west to try and exploit the unsettled land. This conflict was complicated by the Industrial revolution and development of the cotton gin which only promoted the use of slavery. The freedom-loving young settlers I mentioned were only one brand of explorers to the West. The other type of settler was the freedom-loving exploit whoever I can along the way type of settler who took many slaves with them and used the West to expand cotton production. African Americans played a large role in the exploration of the West. When Lewis and Clark set out in 1803 to explore the Louisiana Territory, Clark took his trusted slave York along. York distracted the Indians and provided food for Lewis and Clark through his skilled hunting and fishing. After the expedition was over, York was given his freedom and it is said that he returned to the West and became an Indian chief. The fur trade allowed many blacks to take a leading role in establishing the West. Africans bridged the gap between Indians and Europeans and became key to the success of the fur trade in these developing states. The exploration of the West was slowed by the political stress of this time period. The War of 1812 offered African-Americans yet another chance to serve their country. While blacks werent recruited as such to fight in the war, many blacks took up arms. New York, however, in 1814 passed an act that would raise two regiments of men of color. Each regiment would have about 1000 blacks that would be paid equal to that of whites. General Andrew Jackson, needing more soldiers, recruited many blacks to his company in the fall ...

The Comfort Women of Nanking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The Comfort Women of Nanking - Essay Example The arguments are based on the reasons that there are no definite evidences that link the Japanese government to the maintenance of brothels of comfort women during WWII. Aside from this, prostitutions and sex slaves were considered legal during that time. Although it is admitted based on records that there were about 200,000 comfort women and that they went through pains, disease, and humiliations, the Japanese were not solely to be blamed. Some of the women were prostitutes who volunteered and others were sold by their families. The concern of the government at that time was the needs of the military soldiers that prompted them to act accordingly. The comfort women kept silent about this for a while, but recently, there is a renewed interest globally of justifying the wrongdoings committed to them. Some groups ask for compensation, others ask for public apologies. Governments, more specifically Japan, responsible groups and politicians look at the issue, and weigh things whether to compensate or not. There has been great interest on the issue of compensation for comfort women for supposed rapes and hardships they went through during World War II. International women’s group as well as the affected countries pressure Japan to apologize and issue just compensation for these women as it is argued that this is the least thing that they could do to correct the damage on these women. These comfort women who are now on their eighties still believe that they deserve to be paid because of the agony they had experienced

Compare Freires Education Thoughts to Enders Game Essay

Compare Freires Education Thoughts to Enders Game - Essay Example Freire describes these two versions by saying that â€Å"whereas banking education anesthetized and inhabits creative power, problem posing education involves a constant unveiling of reality. The former attempts to maintain the subversion of consciousness; the later strives for the emergence of consciousness and critical intervention in reality (Freire 71). While Ender’s education is certainly outward orientated, with his educators trying to pull things from within him rather than deposit things inside of him (resembling problem posing education), there remains a significant imbalance in power and goal between educator and learner (resembling the banking concept of education). Throughout Ender’s Game Ender is educated by a character named Graff, who is in control of the Battle School that Ender attends. It is clear from the opening of the work that Graff is not a traditional â€Å"bank clerk† educator, because he recognizes the astounding ability of Ender and th e supreme importance of allowing him to express it, but he does try to maintain a power balance similar to that of a bank clerk educator. Freire describes some of the many features of a bank clerk teacher in his work – things like â€Å"the teacher knows everything and the student knows nothing† or, â€Å"the teacher thinks and the students are thought about† (Freire 73). These clearly do not describe Graff – he recognizes Ender has having abilities he does not (Card 29) and encourages Ender to think independently, for instance giving him a test of boys teasing him and not intervening (Card 26). So in these ways Graff does not fit the model of a bank clerk educator. On the other hand, he does try to control he power in the relationship, by doing things like â€Å"lying† to Ender (29) and actively manipulating Ender to get the results he, Graff, desires throughout the entire work. This control and power is a hallmark of bank clerk education. So Graf f is something of a hybrid educator – he recognizes the pedagogical weaknesses of the bank clerk educational process, so avoids it to allow Ender to reach is full potential, but he tries to keep deep control on him to determine what that potential leads to. Ender is clearly a creative person, and this creativity seems to come from within rather than from the games. One of the first hints as to the fact that Ender has inherent qualities, such as creativity, that are desirable, is how intensely Graff attempts to recruit him. He mentions frequently that they â€Å"need† him, and refers to potential obstacles to his recruitment as â€Å"ruining everything† (37). But there are other cases when Ender’s creativity becomes apparent. But Ender again and again proves that Graff is right in ascribing these qualities to him – he frequently demonstrates behavior that he had never seen, which is the clear definition of creativity. In one battle, he â€Å"freeze s his own legs† to provide a shield against the opponent, using his own disabled body to his advantage (87). He then lists the things he had learned, in his time with his first army, which were entirely his own ideas (88). Ender is clearly quite creative, and though the games help him develop this, they do not instill it in him. Much like the commander that controls battle school, Graff, the school itself is something of

Communicate in a business environment Essay Example for Free

Communicate in a business environment Essay 3.1 Describe ways of verbally presenting information and ideas clearly 3.2 Explain ways of making contributions to discussion that help to move them forward 3.3 Describe methods of active listening 3.4 Explain the purpose of summarising verbal communications 4.1 Describe ways of getting feedback on communications 4.2 Explain the purpose of using feedback to develop communication skills Describe ways of verbally presenting information and ideas clearly to present any information or ideas I need clearly I often use simple language and short sentences this makes it easier for everybody to understand. Also I present the information is a variety of ways as some people understand things and concepts in different ways. For example; some people understand by hearing or seeing. Before I present any information or ideas I always plan out what I want to say, I often also take out any information that is not necessary. I also use active and personal language like ‘’you’ and ‘we’’. Explain ways of making contributions to discussion that help to move them forward To make conversation move forward, I often learn to listen to people and give importance for everybody’s ideas. This way I can make positive contributions that can lead to further discussion. I also often do not make a contribution to a subject who isn’t positive or may not affect me or my work. Describe methods of active listening In order to perform within LSG and to develop my skills listening is one the most important skills I should obtain. As it will portray the quality of my relationship with my team and clients. Listening is important as I need to often obtain information from others to learn new things. Methods of active listening include: Listening calmly without interrupting, so that I let the other person speak and show them that I care and respect them Asking others to repeat if I do not understand anything, in order to avoid mistakes Taking notes of important points, so that I do not forget or miss out on any important points Confirming what I have understood, so that there is no misunderstanding of information Explain the purpose of summarising verbal communications The purpose of summarising verbal communication is to identify major points, behaviours, thoughts and feelings that have been discussed. I then often collate all the information I have collected. By doing this is helps to have a clear precise outline of all communications. Describe ways of getting feedback on communications I believe that feedback completes the entire process of communication. Feedback helps us to decide if the communication was effects and useful. I often get feedback from my line manager Scott or I often get it from clients on the phone. If any feedback given is to improve on anything I often make note of the feedback and make a working progress for myself to include the suggestion in my work. Explain the purpose of using feedback to develop communication skills I use feedback for improve my work performance. It helps improve my work ethnic, team work and quality of my work. To help develop communication skills the feedback has to be received and acted upon. Once I have acted upon feedback I always let my line manager Scott know so that he can see I am willing to learn and enthusiastic and this may encourage people to offer me feedback in the future.

I Was Adopted- What Family Is To Me :: personal narrative, adoption

What Family Is To Me   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since birth, I have grown up with a different concept of family than most people do. Instead of being born into my biological family, I was adopted into my given family. I have known I was adopted, for as long as I can remember because my parents made sure to tell me so, at the earliest age that I could understand. By adopting me and my sister into the family, my parents showed that family means love, respect and sacrifice. My adoption gave me a family to belong to and be loved by.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Love is the first part in any family. I can be defined in more ways than one. Family love is the strongest type because it is unconditional. This unconditional love means that no matter what happens my family will still love me. They have shown this love for twenty years now. And after all the things I have done wrong, or done badly, my family still shows this unconditional love to me and to each other.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second part in a family is respect and trust. Trust is something that can take years to build, but can be broken very easily. By breaking trust with a family member one is also breaking respect of the family. The two ideas go hand in hand. My parents respected me enough to tell me that I was adopted, instead of lying to me and having me find out later in life that I wasn't their biological son. This respect that my parents gave me, in turn gave me their trust. And I gave them the respect and trust that was given to me.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Without sacrifice, a family cannot be. The sacrifices that family members make for each other show the willingness to be an unselfish part of a family. Sacrifices also display the love, respect and trust in a family. I know that even though some of the time it may not seem that my parents would sacrifice anything for me, I realize that they would do anything for and everything for me and that I would do the same for them.

Definitions of Attitude Essay

An attitude can be defined as a positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, event, activities, ideas, or just about anything in your environment, but there is debate about precise definitions. Eagly and Chaiken, for example, define an attitude â€Å"a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor.†[2] Though it is sometimes common to define an attitude as affect toward an object, affect (i.e., discrete emotions or overall arousal) is generally understood to be distinct from attitude as a measure of favorability.[3] This definition of attitude allows for one’s evaluation of an attitude object to vary from extremely negative to extremely positive, but also admits that people can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object meaning that they might at different times express both positive and negative attitude toward the same object. This has led to some discussion of whether individual can hold multiple attitudes toward the same object.[4] Whether attitudes are explicit (i.e., deliberately formed) versus implicit (i.e., subconscious) has been a topic of considerable research. Research on implicit attitudes, which are generally unacknowledged or outside of awareness, uses sophisticated methods involving people’s response times to stimuli to show that implicit attitudes exist (perhaps in tandem with explicit attitudes of the same object). Implicit and explicit attitudes seem to affect people’s behavior, though in different ways. They tend not to be strongly associated with each other, although in some cases they are. The relationship between them is poorly understood. Jung’s definition Attitude is one of Jung’s 57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types. Jung’s definition of attitude is a â€Å"readiness of the psyche to act or react in a certain way† (Jung, [1921] 1971:par. 687). Attitudes very often come in pairs, one conscious and the other unconscious. Within this broad definition Jung defines several attitudes. The main (but not only) attitude dualities that Jung defines are the following. †¢ Consciousness and the unconscious. The â€Å"presence of two attitudes is extremely frequent, one conscious and the other unconscious. This means that consciousness has a constellation of contents different from that of the unconscious, a duality particularly evident in neurosis† (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 687). †¢ Extraversion and introversion. This pair is so elementary to Jung’s theory of types that he labeled them the â€Å"attitude-types†. †¢ Rational and irrational attitudes. â€Å"I conceive reason as an attitude† (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 785). †¢ The rational attitude subdivides into the thinking and feeling psychological functions, each with its attitude. †¢ The irrational attitude subdivides into the sensing and intuition psychological functions, each with its attitude. â€Å"There is thus a typical thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuitive attitude† (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 691). †¢ Individual and social attitudes. Many of the latter are â€Å"isms†. In addition, Jung discusses the abstract attitude. â€Å"When I take an abstract attitude†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 679). Abstraction is contrasted with concretism. â€Å"CONCRETISM. By this I mean a peculiarity of thinking and feeling which is the antithesis of abstraction† (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 696). For example: â€Å"I hate his attitude for being Sarcastic.† Pasted from The classic, tripartite view offered by William J. McGuire[9] is that an attitude contains cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. Empirical research, however, fails to support clear distinctions between thoughts, emotions, and behavioral intentions associated with a particular attitude.[10] A criticism of the tripartite view of attitudes is that it requires cognitive, affective, and behavioral associations of an attitude to be consistent, but this may be implausible. Thus some views of attitude structure see the cognitive and behavioral components as derivative of affect or affect and behavior as derivative of underlying beliefs.[11] Despite debate about the particular structure of attitudes, there is considerable evidence that attitudes reflect more than evaluations of a particular object that vary from positive to negative. Attitudes also have other characteristics, such as importance, certainty, or accessibility (measures of attitude strength) and associated knowledge.[12] There is also considerable interest in inter-attitudinal structure, which connects different attitudes to one another and to more underlying psychological structures, such as values or ideology.[13] Attitude function Another classic view of attitudes is that attitudes serve particular functions for individuals. That is, researchers have tried to understand why individuals hold particular attitudes or why they hold attitudes in general by considering how attitudes affect the individuals who hold them.[14] Daniel Katz, for example, writes that attitudes can serve â€Å"instrumental, adjustive or utilitarian,† â€Å"ego-defensive,† â€Å"value-expressive,† or â€Å"knowledge† functions.[15] The functional view of attitudes suggests that in order for attitudes to change (e.g., via persuasion), appeals must be made to the function(s) that a particular attitude serves for the individual. As an example, the â€Å"ego-defensive† function might be used to influence the racially prejudicial attitudes of an individual who sees themselves as open-minded and tolerant. By appealing to that individual’s image of themselves as tolerant and open-minded, it may be possible to change their prejudicial attitudes to be more consistent with their self-concept. Similarly, a persuasive message that threatens self-image is much more likely to be rejected.[16] Attitude formation According to Doob (1947), learning can account for most of the attitudes we hold. Theories of classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning and social learning are mainly responsible for formation of attitude. Unlike personality, attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience. Tesser (1993) has argued that hereditary variables may affect attitudes – but believes that they may do so indirectly. For example, consistency theories, which imply that we must be consistent in our beliefs and values. As with any type of heritability, to determine if a particular trait has a basis in our genes, twin studies are used.[17] The most famous example of such a theory is Dissonance-reduction theory, associated with Leon Festinger, which explains that when the components of an attitude (including belief and behavior) are at odds an individual may adjust one to match the other (for example, adjusting a belief to match a behavior).[18] Other theories include balance theory, origincally proposed by Heider (1958), and the self-perception theory, originally proposed by Daryl Bem.[19] Attitude change Main article: Attitude change Attitudes can be changed through persuasion and an important domain of research on attitude change focuses on responses to communication. Experimental research into the factors that can affect the persuasiveness of a message include: 1. Target Characteristics: These are characteristics that refer to the person who receives and processes a message. One such trait is intelligence – it seems that more intelligent people are less easily persuaded by one-sided messages. Another variable that has been studied in this category is self-esteem. Although it is sometimes thought that those higher in self-esteem are less easily persuaded, there is some evidence that the relationship between self-esteem and persuasibility is actually curvilinear, with people of moderate self-esteem being more easily persuaded than both those of high and low self-esteem levels (Rhodes & Woods, 1992). The mind frame and mood of the target also plays a role in this process. 2. Source Characteristics: The major source characteristics are expertise, trustworthiness and interpersonal attraction or attractiveness. The credibility of a perceived message has been found to be a key variable here; if one reads a report about health and believes it came from a professional medical journal, one may be more easily persuaded than if one believes it is from a popular newspaper. Some psychologists have debated whether this is a long-lasting effect and Hovland and Weiss (1951) found the effect of telling people that a message came from a credible source disappeared after several weeks (the so-called â€Å"sleeper effect†). Whether there is a sleeper effect is controversial. Perceived wisdom is that if people are informed of the source of a message before hearing it, there is less likelihood of a sleeper effect than if they are told a message and then told its source. 3. Message Characteristics: The nature of the message plays a role in persuasion. Sometimes presenting both sides of a story is useful to help change attitudes. When people are not motivated to process the message, simply the number of arguments presented in a persuasive message will influence attitude change, such that a greater number of arguments will produce greater attitude change.[20] 4. Cognitive Routes: A message can appeal to an individual’s cognitive evaluation to help change an attitude. In the central route to persuasion the individual is presented with the data and motivated to evaluate the data and arrive at an attitude changing conclusion. In the peripheral route to attitude change, the individual is encouraged to not look at the content but at the source. This is commonly seen in modern advertisements that feature celebrities. In some cases, physician, doctors or experts are used. In other cases film stars are used for their attractiveness. Emotion and attitude change Emotion is a common component in persuasion, social influence, and attitude change. Much of attitude research emphasized the importance of affective or emotion components. Emotion works hand-in-hand with the cognitive process, or the way we think, about an issue or situation. Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and conative components. Attitudes are part of the brain’s associative networks, the spider-like structures residing in long term memory that consist of affective and cognitive nodes. By activating an affective or emotion node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined. In primarily affective networks, it is more difficult to produce cognitive counterarguments in the resistance to persuasion and attitude change. Affective forecasting, otherwise known as intuition or the prediction of emotion, also impacts attitude change. Research suggests that predicting emotions is an important component of decision making, in addition to the cognitive processes. How we feel about an outcome may override purely cognitive rationales. In terms of research methodology, the challenge for researchers is measuring emotion and subsequent impacts on attitude. Since we cannot see into the brain, various models and measurement tools have been constructed to obtain emotion and attitude information. Measures may include the use of physiological cues like facial expressions, vocal changes, and other body rate measures. For instance, fear is associated with raised eyebrows, increased heart rate and increase body tension (Dillard, 1994). Other methods include concept or network mapping, and using primes or word cues in the era . Components of emotion appeals Any discrete emotion can be used in a persuasive appeal; this may include jealousy, disgust, indignation, fear, blue, disturbed, haunted,and anger. Fear is one of the most studied emotional appeals in communication and social influence research. Important consequences of fear appeals and other emotion appeals include the possibility of reactance which may lead to either message rejections or source rejection and the absence of attitude change. As the EPPM suggests, there is an optimal emotion level in motivating attitude change. If there is not enough motivation, an attitude will not change; if the emotional appeal is overdone, the motivation can be paralyzed thereby preventing attitude change. Emotions perceived as negative or containing threat are often studied more than perceived positive emotions like humor. Though the inner-workings of humor are not agreed upon, humor appeals may work by creating incongruities in the mind. Recent research has looked at the impact of humor on the processing of political messages. While evidence is inconclusive, there appears to be potential for targeted attitude change is receivers with low political message involvement. Important factors that influence the impact of emotion appeals include self efficacy, attitude accessibility, issue involvement, and message/source features. Self efficacy is a perception of one’s own human agency; in other words, it is the perception of our own ability to deal with a situation. It is an important variable in emotion appeal messages because it dictates a person’s ability to deal with both the emotion and the situation. For example, if a person is not self-efficacious about their ability to impact the global environment, they are not likely to change their attitude or behavior about global warming. Dillard (1994) suggests that message features such as source non-verbal communication, message content, and receiver differences can impact the emotion impact of fear appeals. The characteristics of a message are important because one message can elicit different levels of emotion for different people. Thus, in terms of emotion appeals messages, one size does not fit all. Attitude accessibility refers to the activation of an attitude from memory in other words, how readily available is an attitude about an object, issue, or situation. Issue involvement is the relevance and salience of an issue or situation to an individual. Issue involvement has been correlated with both attitude access and attitude strength. Past studies conclude accessible attitudes are more resistant to change. Attitude-behavior relationship This section requires expansion. (September 2012) The effects of attitudes on behaviors represents a significant research enterprise within psychology. Two theoretical approaches have dominated this research: the theory of reasoned action[21] and, its theoretical descendant, the theory of planned behavior,[22] both of which are associated with Icek Ajzen. Both of these theories describe the link between attitude and behavior as a deliberative process, with an individual actively choosing to engage in an attitude-related behavior. An alternative model, called MODE for â€Å"Motivation and Opportunity as DEterminants† was proposed by Russell H. Fazio, which focuses on motivations and opportunities for deliberative attitude-related behavior to occur. MODE is a Dual process theory that expects deliberative attitude-behavior linkages – like those modeled by the theory of planned behavior – only occur when individuals have motivation to reflect upon their own attitudes. Pasted from Theory of reasoned action From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The theory of reasoned action (TRA), is a model for the prediction of behavioral intention, spanning predictions of attitude and predictions of behavior. The subsequent separation of behavioral intention from behavior allows for explanation of limiting factors on attitudinal influence (Ajzen, 1980). The Theory of Reasoned Action was developed by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen (1975, 1980), derived from previous research that started out as the theory of attitude, which led to the study of attitude and behavior. The theory was â€Å"born largely out of frustration with traditional attitude–behavior research, much of which found weak correlations between attitude measures and performance of volitional behaviors† (Hale, Householder & Greene, 2003, p. 259). Pasted from Definition and example Derived from the social psychology setting, the theory of reasoned action (TRA) was proposed by Ajzen and Fishbein (1975 & 1980). The components of TRA are three general constructs: behavioral intention (BI), attitude (A), and subjective norm (SN). TRA suggests that a person’s behavioral intention depends on the person’s attitude about the behavior and subjective norms (BI = A + SN). If a person intends to do a behavior then it is likely that the person will do it. Behavioral intention measures a person’s relative strength of intention to perform a behavior. Attitude consists of beliefs about the consequences of performing the behavior multiplied by his or her evaluation of these consequences. (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) Subjective norm is seen as a combination of perceived expectations from relevant individuals or groups along with intentions to comply with these expectations. In other words, â€Å"the person’s perception that most people who are important to him or her think he should or should not perform the behavior in question† (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). To put the definition into simple terms: a person’s volitional (voluntary) behavior is predicted by his/her attitude toward that behavior and how he/she thinks other people would view them if they performed the behavior. A person’s attitude, combined with subjective norms, forms his/her behavioral intention. Fishbein and Ajzen say, though, that attitudes and norms are not weighted equally in predicting behavior. â€Å"Indeed, depending on the individual and the situation, these factors might be very different effects on behavioral intention; thus a weight is associated with each of these factors in the predictive formula of the theory. For example, you might be the kind of person who cares little for what others think. If this is the case, the subjective norms would carry little weight in predicting your behavior† (Miller, 2005, p. 127). Miller (2005) defines each of the three components of the theory as follows and uses the example of embarking on a new exercise program to illustrate the theory: †¢ Attitudes: the sum of beliefs about a particular behavior weighted by evaluations of these beliefs ââ€"‹ You might have the beliefs that exercise is good for your health, that exercise makes you look good, that exercise takes too much time, and that exercise is uncomfortable. Each of these beliefs can be weighted (e.g., health issues might be more important to you than issues of time and comfort). †¢ Subjective norms: looks at the influence of people in one’s social environment on his/her behavioral intentions; the beliefs of people, weighted by the importance one attributes to each of their opinions, will influence one’s behavioral intention ââ€"‹ You might have some friends who are avid exercisers and constantly encourage you to join them. However, your spouse might prefer a more sedentary lifestyle and scoff at those who work out. The beliefs of these people, weighted by the importance you attribute to each of their opinions, will influence your behavioral intention to exercise, which will lead to your behavior to exercise or not exercise. †¢ Behavioral intention: a function of both attitudes toward a behavior and subjective norms toward that behavior, which has been found to predict actual behavior. ââ€"‹ Your attitudes about exercise combined with the subjective norms about exercise, each with their own weight, will lead you to your intention to exercise (or not), which will then lead to your actual behavior. Pasted from In psychology, the theory of planned behavior is a theory about the link between attitudes and behavior. The concept was proposed by Icek Ajzen to improve on the predictive power of the theory of reasoned action by including perceived behavioural control.[1] It is one of the most predictive persuasion theories. It has been applied to studies of the relations among beliefs, attitudes, behavioral intentions and behaviors in various fields such as advertising, public relations, advertising campaigns and healthcare. The theory states that attitude toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, together shape an individual’s behavioral intentions and behaviors. Pasted from Extension from the theory of reasoned action The theory of planned behavior was proposed by Icek Ajzen in 1985 through his article â€Å"From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior.† The theory was developed from the theory of reasoned action, which was proposed by Martin Fishbein together with Icek Ajzen in 1975. The theory of reasoned action was in turn grounded in various theories of attitude such as learning theories, expectancy-value theories, consistency theories,[2] and attribution theory.[3] According to the theory of reasoned action, if people evaluate the suggested behavior as positive (attitude), and if they think their significant others want them to perform the behavior (subjective norm), this results in a higher intention (motivation) and they are more likely to do so. A high correlation of attitudes and subjective norms to behavioral intention, and subsequently to behavior, has been confirmed in many studies.[4] A counter-argument against the high relationship between behavioral intention and actual behavior has also been proposed, as the results of some studies show that, because of circumstantial limitations, behavioral intention does not always lead to actual behavior. Namely, since behavioral intention cannot be the exclusive determinant of behavior where an individual’s control over the behavior is incomplete, Ajzen introduced the theory of planned behavior by adding a new component, â€Å"perceived behavioral control.† By this, he extended the theory of reasoned action to cover non-volitional behaviors for predicting behavioral intention and actual behavior. Extension of self-efficacy In addition to attitudes and subjective norms (which make the theory of reasoned action), the theory of planned behavior adds the concept of perceived behavioral control, which originates from self-efficacy theory (SET). Self-efficacy was proposed by Bandura in 1977, which came from social cognitive theory. According to Bandura, expectations such as motivation, performance, and feelings of frustration associated with repeated failures determine effect and behavioral reactions. Bandura (1986)[full citation needed] separated expectations into two distinct types: self-efficacy and outcome expectancy. He defined self-efficacy as the conviction that one can successfully execute the behavior required to produce the outcomes. The outcome expectancy refers to a person’s estimation that a given behavior will lead to certain outcomes. He states that self-efficacy is the most important precondition for behavioral change, since it determines the initiation of coping behavior. Previous investigations have shown that peoples’ behavior is strongly influenced by their confidence in their ability to perform that behavior (Bandura, Adams, Hardy, & Howells, 1980).[full citation needed] As the self-efficacy theory contributes to explaining various relationships between beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behavior, the SET has been widely applied to health-related fields such as physical activity and mental health in preadolescents,[5] and exercise.[6] Concepts of key variables Behavioral beliefs and attitude toward behavior †¢ Behavioral belief: an individual’s belief about consequences of particular behavior. The concept is based on the subjective probability that the behavior will produce a given outcome. †¢ Attitude toward behavior: an individual’s positive or negative evaluation of self-performance of the particular behavior. The concept is the degree to which performance of the behavior is positively or negatively valued. It is determined by the total set of accessible behavioral beliefs linking the behavior to various outcomes and other attributes. Normative beliefs and subjective norms †¢ Normative belief: an individual’s perception about the particular behavior, which is influenced by the judgment of significant others (e.g., parents, spouse, friends, teachers).[7] †¢ Subjective norm: an individual’s perception of social normative pressures, or relevant others’ beliefs that he or she should or should not perform such behavior. Control beliefs and perceived behavioral control †¢ Perceived behavioral control: an individual’s perceived ease or difficulty of performing the particular behavior (Ajzen, 1988).[full citation needed] It is assumed that perceived behavioral control is determined by the total set of accessible control beliefs. †¢ Control beliefs: an individual’s beliefs about the presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of the behavior (Ajzen, 2001).[full citation needed] The concept of perceived behavioral control is conceptually related to self-efficacy. Behavioral intention and behavior †¢ Behavioral intention: an indication of an individual’s readiness to perform a given behavior. It is assumed to be an immediate antecedent of behavior (Ajzen, 2002b).[full citation needed] It is based on attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, with each predictor weighted for its importance in relation to the behavior and population of interest. †¢ Behavior: an individual’s observable response in a given situation with respect to a given target. Ajzen said a behavior is a function of compatible intentions and perceptions of behavioral control in that perceived behavioral control is expected to moderate the effect of intention on behavior, such that a favorable intention produces the behavior only when perceived behavioral control is strong. Pasted from Cognitive dissonance is a term used in modern psychology to describe the feeling of discomfort when simultaneously holding two or more conflicting cognitions: ideas, beliefs, values or emotional reactions. In a state of dissonance, people may sometimes feel â€Å"disequilibrium†: frustration, hunger, dread, guilt, anger, embarrassment, anxiety, etc.[1] The phrase was coined by Leon Festinger in his 1956 book When Prophecy Fails, which chronicled the followers of a UFO cult as reality clashed with their fervent belief in an impending apocalypse.[2][3] Festinger subsequently published a book called â€Å"A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance†, published in 1957, in which he outlines the theory. Cognitive dissonance is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in social psychology. The theory of cognitive dissonance in social psychology proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by altering existing cognitions, adding new ones to create a consistent belief system, or alternatively by reducing the importance of any one of the dissonant elements.[1] It is the distressing mental state that people feel when they â€Å"find themselves doing things that don’t fit with what they know, or having opinions that do not fit with other opinions they hold.† [4] A key assumption is that people want their expectations to meet reality, creating a sense of equilibrium. [5] Likewise, another assumption is that a person will avoid situations or information sources that give rise to feelings of uneasiness, or dissonance.[1] Cognitive dissonance theory explains human behavior by positing that people have a bias to seek consonance between their expectations and reality. According to Festinger, people engage in a process he termed â€Å"dissonance reduction†, which can be achieved in one of three ways: lowering the importance of one of the discordant factors, adding consonant elements, or changing one of the dissonant factors.[6] This bias sheds light on otherwise puzzling, irrational, and even destructive behavior. Pasted from The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion[1] is a dual process theory of how attitudes are formed and changed that was developed by Richard E. Petty and John Cacioppo in the early 1980s (see also attitude change). The model proposes an â€Å"elaboration continuum,† which determines the extent to which arguments are processed and evaluated (high elaboration) versus peripheral cues such as source expertise or attractiveness (low elaboration) shape persuasion. The model is similar to the Heuristic-systematic model of information processing developed around the same time by Shelly Chaiken. Pasted from Central route Central route processes require the audience to use a great deal more thought, and therefore are likely to predominate under conditions that promote high elaboration. Central route processes involve careful scrutiny of a persuasive communication (e.g., a speech, an advertisement, etc.) to determine the merits of the arguments. Under these conditions, a person’s unique cognitive responses to the message determine the persuasive outcome. If a person evaluates a message centrally as reliable, well-constructed, and convincing, it will often be received as favorable even if it is contrasting to the receiver’s original stance on the message. So, if favorable thoughts are a result of the elaboration process, the message will most likely be accepted (i.e., an attitude congruent with the message’s position will emerge), and if unfavorable thoughts are generated while considering the merits of presented arguments, the message will most likely be rejected.[1] In order for the message to be centrally processed, a person must have the ability and motivation to do so. In order for the receiver to have motivation to centrally process a message it must have relevance to him or her. Peripheral route Peripheral route processes, on the other hand, does not involve elaboration of the message through extensive cognitive processing of the merits of the actual argument presented. These processes often rely on environmental characteristics of the message, like the perceived credibility of the source, quality of the way in which it is presented, the attractiveness of the source, or the catchy slogan that contains the message.[1] It is also frequently used when the argument presented is weak and/or lacking evidence. The peripheral route is a mental shortcut process that accepts or rejects a message based on irrelevant cues as opposed to actively thinking about the issue [2] The peripheral route is a process in which outside influences affect the decision making process. This is also the process used when the audience is unable to process the message. This could be from having a message that is too complex, or an audience that is immature. The most common influences would be factors such as reward. Reward could be objects like food, sex or money. These inducements create a quick change in mind and action. Celebrity status along with likability and expertise are other factors in the peripheral process that have become more popular. Humor within messages is a dominant influence in this process as well. Appearance also has the ability to gain the attention of individuals which can create an interest in the topic, but will not create a strong change in individuals. The goal of the peripheral process is to create change, this change can be weak and even temporary as opposed to the strong and lasting change in the central route. Choice of route The two factors that most influence which route an individual will take in a persuasive situation are motivation (strong desire to process the message; e.g., Petty & Cacioppo, 1979) and ability (actually being capable of critical evaluation; e.g., Petty, Wells, & Brock, 1976). Which route is taken is determined by the extent of elaboration. Both motivational and ability factors determine elaboration. Motivational factors include (among others) the personal relevance of the message topic, accountability, and a person’s â€Å"need for cognition† (their innate desire to enjoy thinking). Ability factors include the availability of cognitive resources (e.g., the presence or absence of time pressures or distractions) or relevant knowledge needed to carefully scrutinize the arguments. The ability to understand the message that is being communicated. Distractions such as noise can affect the ability for one to process a message. An example of noise would be a persuader trying to share his message in a room full of crying babies, this would make it extremely difficult for listeners to concentrate on the message being given. Noise that you can’t physically control would be if a persuaders listeners could concentrate on the message because they had something else on their mind which was more important than the persuaders message like a death in the family, or problems they’re having in their relationship. Another example of this is in children. A child will change their behavior because his or her parent told them to do so rather than taking the information given and processing it. As that child grows up, however, he or she will have a higher cognitive complexity, and therefore be able to process the information of the situation centrally in order to draw a conclusion of their own. (O’Keefe) The subject’s general education level, as well as their education and experience with the topic at hand greatly affect their ability to be persuaded. Under conditions of moderate elaboration, a mixture of central and peripheral route processes will guide information processing. There are benefits and consequences for both processes. An individual who disagrees with the message being presented will likely have a boomerang effect if he or she centrally processes the message and bounce farther away from the speaker’s goal. If that same situation takes place, but the message is peripherally processed, a weak change will not have as large of a negative effect on that individual. (O’Keefe) Type of Elaboration: Objective Versus Biased Thinking Attitude, motivation, and ability strongly increase the likelihood that a message will be ingrained in the minds’ of listeners. Although, as the social judgement theory suggests, they may not process the information in a fair, objective way. Attitudes are general evaluations that people hold that correspond with how they perceive themselves in relation to the world they live in. One way to influence attitude is to give peripheral cues. Peripheral cues can be things that lead to good or punishing or they can invoke provide guiding rules or inferences. These are often effective because they cause the audience to draw the conclusion themselves, therefore, making them believe it is their own idea, so they buy in to it. (Griffin) Many of the evaluations are based on Cognitive intelligence, behavior, and guidance. Given a basic understanding of an individuals attitudes one can interpret which type of elaboration would better suit the situation. There are two types of elaboration a listener can possess: (Biased elaboration, Objective elaboration) Elaboration can lead to both positive and negative results depending on the audience who is receiving the message. Individuals who have a Pre conception of a certain topic are going to be much harder to persuade oppose to an individual who has an open mind about a topic where only the facts hold truth. Biased Elaboration: Top-down thinking in which predetermined conclusions color the supporting data. This is used on people who likely already have their minds made up about a situation before the message is ever conveyed to them (Cacioppo) Ex. Someone who has had a negative personal experience with motorcycles will probably have made up their minds and be biased in the way they process the message.[2] Objective Elaboration: Bottom-up thinking in which facts are scrutinized without bias; seeking truth wherever it might lead. These listeners let the facts speak for themselves and approach the message with an unbias mind. Which leads to a true unbiased result or opinion. (Cacioppo) Ex. A person who is listening to a motorcycle salesman and already has a mindset about them. This person would let the facts influence their attitude.[2] Testing the Elaboration Likelihood Model To design a way to test the Elaboration Likelihood Model, it is crucial to determine whether an argument is universally seen as strong or weak. If an argument is inconsistent in opinions of strength, the results of persuasion will be inconsistent. A strong argument is defined by Petty and Cacioppo as â€Å"one containing arguments such that when subjects are instructed to think about the message, the thoughts they generate are fundamentally favorable† (Griffin). In general, a weak argument that is universally viewed as weak will entice unfavorable results if the subject is instructed to and is in an appropriate environment to consider it logically (or when testing the central route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model). In turn, a strong argument under similar circumstances will return favorable results. The test arguments must also be rated for ease of understanding, complexity, and familiarity. To scientifically study either route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model, the arguments themselves must be designed to have consistent results.[3] Conclusions of the Elaboration Likelihood Model In addition to these factors, the ELM also makes several unique proposals.[1] It is suggested that attitudes formed under high elaboration, the central route, are stronger than those formed under low elaboration. This means that this level of persuasion is stable over time and is less susceptible to decay or any type of counter-persuasion. Attitudes formed under low elaboration, the peripheral route, are more likely to cause a short term attitude change. Variables in ELM routes can serve multiple roles in a persuasive setting depending on other contextual factors (examples below). Under high elaboration, a given variable (e.g., source expertise) can either serve as an argument (â€Å"If Einstein agrees with the theory of relativity, then this is a strong reason for me to as well†) or as a biasing factor (â€Å"if an expert agrees with this position it is probably good, so let me see what else agrees with this conclusion† — at the expense of information that may d isagree with it).[4] Under conditions of low elaboration, a given variable can act as a peripheral cue. This could happen, e.g., through the use of an â€Å"experts are always right† heuristic. Note that, while this is similar to the Einstein example presented above, this is a simple shortcut, which, unlike the Einstein example, does not require careful thought. Under conditions of moderate elaboration, a given variable can serve to direct the extent of information processing: â€Å"If an expert agrees with this position, I should really listen to what (s)he has to say†. Interestingly, when a variable affects elaboration, this can increase or decrease persuasion, depending on the strength of the arguments presented. If the arguments are strong, enhancing elaboration will enhance persuasion. If the arguments are weak, however, more thought will undermine persuasion. More recent adaptations of the ELM (e.g.)[5] have added an additional role that variables can serve. They can affect the extent to which a person has confidence in, and thus trusts, their own thoughts in response to a message (self-validation role). Keeping with our source expertise example, a person may feel that â€Å"if an expert presented this information, it is probably correct, and thus I can trust that my reactions to it are informative with respect to my attitude†. Note that this role, because of its metacognitive nature, only occurs under conditions that promote high elaboration. Pasted from Attitudes Attitudes are evaluations people make about objects, ideas, events, or other people. Attitudes can be positive or negative. Explicit attitudes are conscious beliefs that can guide decisions and behavior. Implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs that can still influence decisions and behavior. Attitudes can include up to three components: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral. Example: Jane believes that smoking is unhealthy, feels disgusted when people smoke around her, and avoids being in situations where people smoke. Dimensions of Attitudes Researchers study three dimensions of attitude: strength, accessibility, and ambivalence. †¢ Attitude strength: Strong attitudes are those that are firmly held and that highly influence behavior. Attitudes that are important to a person tend to be strong. Attitudes that people have a vested interest in also tend to be strong. Furthermore, people tend to have stronger attitudes about things, events, ideas, or people they have considerable knowledge and information about. †¢ Attitude accessibility: The accessibility of an attitude refers to the ease with which it comes to mind. In general, highly accessible attitudes tend to be stronger. †¢ Attitude ambivalence: Ambivalence of an attitude refers to the ratio of positive and negative evaluations that make up that attitude. The ambivalence of an attitude increases as the positive and negative evaluations get more and more equal. The Influence of Attitudes on Behavior Behavior does not always reflect attitudes. However, attitudes do determine behavior in some situations: †¢ If there are few outside influences, attitude guides behavior. Example: Wyatt has an attitude that eating junk food is unhealthy. When he is at home, he does not eat chips or candy. However, when he is at parties, he indulges in these foods. †¢ Behavior is guided by attitudes specific to that behavior. Example: Megan might have a general attitude of respect toward seniors, but that would not prevent her from being disrespectful to an elderly woman who cuts her off at a stop sign. However, if Megan has an easygoing attitude about being cut off at stop signs, she is not likely to swear at someone who cuts her off. †¢ Behavior is guided by attitudes that come to mind easily. Example: Ron has an attitude of mistrust and annoyance toward telemarketers, so he immediately hangs up the phone whenever he realizes he has been contacted by one. The Influence of Behavior on Attitudes Behavior also affects attitudes. Evidence for this comes from the foot-in-the-door phenomenon and the effect of role playing. The Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon People tend to be more likely to agree to a difficult request if they have first agreed to an easy one. This is called the foot-in-the-door phenomenon. Example: Jill is more likely to let an acquaintance borrow her laptop for a day if he first persuades her to let him borrow her textbook for a day. Social Norms and Social Roles Social norms are a society’s rules about appropriate behavior. Norms exist for practically every kind of situation. Some norms are explicit and are made into laws, such as the norm While driving, you may not run over a pedestrian. Other norms are implicit and are followed unconsciously, such as You may not wear a bikini to class. Social roles are patterns of behavior that are considered appropriate for a person in a particular context. For example, gender roles tell people how a particular society expects men and women to behave. A person who violates the requirements of a role tends to feel uneasy or to be censured by others. Role requirements can change over time in a society. The Effect of Role Playing and the â€Å"Prison Study† People tend to internalize roles they play, changing their attitudes to fit the roles. In the 1970s, the psychologist Philip Zimbardo conducted a famous study called the prison study, which showed how roles influence people. Zimbardo assigned one group of college student volunteers to play the role of prison guards in a simulated prison environment. He provided these students with uniforms, clubs, and whistles and told them to enforce a set of rules in the prison. He assigned another group of students to play the role of prisoners. Zimbardo found that as time went on, some of the â€Å"guard† students became increasingly harsh and domineering. The â€Å"prisoner† students also internalized their role. Some broke down, while others rebelled or became passively resigned to the situation. The internalization of roles by the two groups of students was so extreme that Zimbardo had to terminate the study after only six days.